Abstract
The opioid epidemic led to an increase in the number of neonatal opioid withdrawal syndrome (NOWS) cases in infants born to opioid-dependent mothers. Hallmark features of NOWS include weight loss, severe irritability, respiratory problems, and sleep fragmentation. Mouse models provide an opportunity to identify brain mechanisms that contribute to NOWS. Neonatal outbred Swiss Webster Cartworth Farms White (CFW) mice were administered morphine (15 mg/kg, s.c.) twice daily from postnatal day 1 (P1) to P14, an approximation of the third trimester of human gestation. Female and male mice underwent behavioral testing on P7 and P14 to determine the impact of opioid exposure on anxiety and pain sensitivity. Ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) and daily body weights were also recorded. Brainstems containing pons and medulla were collected during morphine withdrawal on P14 for RNA sequencing. Morphine induced weight loss from P2 to P14, which persisted during adolescence (P21) and adulthood (P50). USVs markedly increased at P7 in females, emerging earlier than males. On P7 and P14, both morphine-exposed female and male mice displayed hyperalgesia on the hot plate and tail-flick assays, with females showing greater hyperalgesia than males. Morphine-exposed mice exhibited increased anxiety-like behavior in the open-field arena on P21. Transcriptome analysis of the brainstem, an area implicated in opioid withdrawal and NOWS, identified pathways enriched for noradrenergic signaling in females and males. We also found sex-specific pathways related to mitochondrial function and neurodevelopment in females and circadian entrainment in males. Sex-specific transcriptomic neuroadaptations implicate unique neurobiological mechanisms underlying NOWS-like behaviors.