Abstract
Pharmacological activation of the activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6) arm of the unfolded protein response (UPR) has proven useful for ameliorating proteostasis deficiencies in cellular and mouse models of numerous etiologically diverse diseases. Previous high-throughput screening efforts identified the small molecule AA147 as a potent and selective ATF6 activating compound that operates through a mechanism involving metabolic activation of its 2-amino-p-cresol substructure affording a quinone methide, which then covalently modifies a subset of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) protein disulfide isomerases (PDIs). Another compound identified in this screen, AA132, also contains a 2-amino-p-cresol moiety; however, this compound showed less transcriptional selectivity, instead globally activating all three arms of the UPR. Here, we show that AA132 activates global UPR signaling through a mechanism analogous to that of AA147, involving metabolic activation and covalent modification of proteins including multiple PDIs. Chemoproteomic-enabled analyses show that AA132 covalently modifies PDIs to a greater extent than AA147. However, the extent of PDI labeling by AA147 approaches a plateau more rapidly than PDI labeling by AA132. These observations together suggest that AA132 can access a larger pool of proteins for covalent modification, possibly because its activated form is less susceptible to quenching than activated AA147. In other words, the lower reactivity of activated AA132 allows it to persist longer and modify more PDIs in the cellular environment. Collectively, these results suggest that AA132 globally activates the UPR through increased engagement of ER PDIs. Consistent with this, reducing the cellular concentration of AA132 decreases PDI modifications and enables selective ATF6 activation. Our results highlight the relationship between metabolically activatable-electrophile stability, ER proteome reactivity, and the transcriptional response observed with the enaminone chemotype of ER proteostasis regulators, enabling continued development of next-generation ATF6 activating compounds.