Abstract
mRNA vaccines have demonstrated efficacy during the COVID-19 pandemic and are now being investigated for multiple diseases. However, concerns linger about the durability of immune responses, and the high incidence of breakthrough infections among vaccinated individuals highlights the need for improved mRNA vaccines. In this study, we investigated the effects of reinforcing costimulation via 4-1BB, a member of the TNF receptor superfamily, on immune responses elicited by mRNA vaccines. We first immunized mice with mRNA vaccines, followed by treatment with 4-1BB costimulatory antibodies to reinforce the 4-1BB pathway at different time points after vaccination. Consistent with prior studies, reinforcing 4-1BB costimulation on the day of vaccination did not result in a substantial improvement in vaccine responses. However, reinforcing 4-1BB costimulation on day 4 after vaccination, when 4-1BB expression levels were highest, resulted in a profound improvement in CD8+ T cell responses associated with enhanced protection against pathogen challenges. A similar clinical benefit was observed in a therapeutic cancer vaccine model. We also report time-dependent effects with OX40, another costimulatory molecule of the TNF receptor superfamily. These findings demonstrate that delayed reinforcement of costimulation may exert an immunologic benefit, providing insights for the development of more effective mRNA vaccines for infectious diseases and cancer.